A Brief History of Maps

Historic maps were made through a combination of methods that evolved over time, influenced by technological advancements, cultural needs, and geographical exploration. Early mapmaking was as much an art form as a science, and the methods used depended on the tools and knowledge available. It could take years or even decades to make these early styles of maps. 

 Here's an overview of how historic maps were created and the reasons for making them:

1. Early Map Making Methods

• Hand-drawn by cartographers: Early maps were often created by hand, sometimes drawn by individual cartographers who used personal and public observations, reports from travelers, and mariners. 
• Pictorial and symbolic representation: In ancient times, maps were often more symbolic or artistic than geographically precise. For example, the Babylonians created a map known as the "Imago Mundi" around 600 BCE, which depicted the world as a flat disk surrounded by water, not as an accurate geographical representation.
• Use of surveys and landmarks: As civilization advanced, particularly in ancient Egypt, Greece, and Rome, mapmakers began using real-world measurements, such as the position of stars, sun angles, and distances between landmarks to make maps more accurate. The ancient Greeks, like Eratosthenes, used calculations to measure the Earth's circumference!

Imago Mundi, 600 BCE.. Inscribed Babylonian clay tablet depicting what was understood about the configuration of and origins of Mesopotamia. This Map is focused on the Euphrates River, flowing North to South. Babylon is shown in the North. This depiction shows Mesopotamia surrounded by a ‘bitter river,’ or ocean, and triangles on the exterior showing foreign lands, possibly mountains. 

2. Medieval and Renaissance Maps

Portolan charts: In the medieval period, particularly during the 13th to 16th centuries, mariners produced portolan charts. These maps were used for navigation and depicted coastlines, ports, and landmarks with considerable accuracy. They were based on sailors' observations and navigational techniques, such as the use of the compass.

Religious or philosophical influence: During the Middle Ages, many maps had a religious or symbolic meaning. For example, the Mappa Mundi, such as the famous Hereford Map, depicted the known world in a manner that placed Jerusalem at the center, reflecting the importance of Christianity at the time. These maps were often more about representing the religious worldview than about precise geographical knowledge.

Hereford map

A sextant is a doubly reflecting navigation instrument that measures the angular distance between two visible objects. The primary use of a sextant is to measure the angle between an astronomical object and the horizon for the purposes of celestial navigation.

Geographic surveys and scientific advancements: In the Renaissance, with the rise of scientific inquiry and exploration, mapmaking became more accurate. The development of tools like the compass, astrolabe, and sextant allowed for more precise measurements of longitude and latitude. Explorers like Christopher Columbus and Vasco da Gama provided new geographic data, leading to more accurate maps.

Astrolabe, a calculating device that served as a clock, compass, latitude finder on smooth oceans and on land, inclinometer and star chart. 

3. Printing Press and Mass Production (16th-18th Century)

• Printing technology: The invention of the printing press by Johannes Gutenberg in the 15th century revolutionized mapmaking. Maps could now be reproduced and distributed widely, which helped spread knowledge and understanding of geography. Early printed maps often included woodcut illustrations and were frequently used for political, religious, or educational purposes.
• New World Discoveries: The Age of Exploration prompted the production of many maps as new territories were discovered. The depiction of the Americas, Africa, and Asia on European maps evolved dramatically as explorers provided new data. Maps like the world maps of Gerardus Mercator, which introduced the Mercator projection, allowed for better navigation, especially for sea travel. This projection inflates the scale of the map as it moves away from the equator, allowing a three dimensional Earth to be drawn on a piece of flat paper making it possible for Sailors to draw a straight line on the map without further calculations or considerations. 

Mercator Projection: A projection of a map of the world on to a cylinder in such a way that all the parallels of latitude have the same length as the equator, used especially for marine charts and certain climatological maps.

4. 19th and 20th Century Advances

• Surveying and triangulation: By the 18th and 19th centuries, the use of more advanced surveying techniques, like triangulation, allowed for the creation of detailed, large-scale maps of specific regions. The development of accurate instruments, such as the theodolite, helped surveyors take precise measurements over long distances. A theodolite rotates on its horizontal and vertical axis to create precise angular measurements. 
• Topographical and military maps: As nations expanded their empires and developed armies, accurate topographical maps became increasingly important for military strategy. The British Ordnance Survey, which started in the late 18th century, produced detailed maps of Great Britain that were used for both civilian and military purposes.
• Technological innovations: In the 19th and 20th centuries, technological innovations like photography and aerial surveys began to influence mapmaking. The use of aerial reconnaissance during World War I and World War II helped create highly detailed maps of battlefields and strategic locations.

What were early maps used for?

Maps throughout history were created for a variety of reasons, including:

1. Navigation: One of the primary reasons for mapmaking was to help with travel and exploration. Mariners and explorers needed maps to navigate across seas and unfamiliar territories. Maps helped people plan routes and understand distances.
2. Territorial and Military Control: Maps were used by governments and military leaders to control, claim, and defend territories. They provided strategic insights, such as terrain features, fortifications, and boundaries, critical for military operations.
3. Scientific Exploration and Knowledge: Early mapmakers, especially during the Renaissance, were often motivated by a quest for knowledge. The desire to understand the world, its dimensions, and its place in the cosmos led to the development of more accurate and scientifically grounded maps.
4. Economic and Trade Purposes: Maps helped traders and merchants navigate trade routes, whether over land or by sea. They also served to mark resources, important trade centers, and markets.
5. Cultural and Religious Representation: In many cases, maps were created for symbolic or religious purposes. For example, medieval maps often depicted the world in a way that reflected religious beliefs, placing certain locations (like Jerusalem) at the center of the map.
6. Political Propaganda: Maps were often used by political authorities to assert control over territories, and to influence public perception of borders, empires, and territories. They helped solidify power and territorial claims, and sometimes even created or justified new borders during colonization.

In summary, historic maps were made using available tools and techniques, ranging from simple illustrations to precise scientific measurements. They were created for practical purposes such as navigation, military strategy, and trade, as well as for cultural, religious, and political reasons. The evolution of mapmaking reflects advancements in technology, exploration, and the changing needs of societies throughout history.